Research Paper Paradigms

Using Paradigms for Different Disciplines

A paradigm is a universal outline, one that governs most papers of a given type. It is not content-specific; rather, it provides a general model and a basic academic pattern of reasoning for all papers with a certain purpose. In contrast, a traditional outline, with its specific detail on various levels of subdivision, is useful for only one paper. Start with a paradigm, an ideal pattern for many different papers, and finish with an outline, a content-oriented plan for one paper only.

A Traditional Outline

If you are uncertain about the design of your paper, start with this bare-bones model and expand it with your material:

• Identify the subject
• Explain the problem
• Provide background information
• Frame a thesis statement
• Analyze the subject
• Examine the first major issue
• Examine the second major issue
• Examine the third major issue
• Discuss your findings
• Restate your thesis and point beyond it
• Interpret the findings
• Provide answers, solutions, a final opinion
• Flesh out each section, adding subheadings as necessary, and you will create an outline.

Paradigm for "Theory" Papers

If you want to advance a thesis in your paper, use this next design.

Introduction

• Establish the problem or question
• Discuss its significance
• Provide the necessary background information
• Introduce experts who have addressed the problem
• Provide a thesis sentence that addresses the problem from a fresh perspective if at all possible

Body

• Evaluate the issues involved in the problem
• Develop a past-to-present examination
• Compare and analyze the details and minor issues
• Cite experts who have addressed the same problem

Conclusion

• Advance and defend your theory as it grows out of evidence in the body
• Offer directives or a plan of action
• Suggest additional work and research that is needed

Paradigm for the Analysis of Creative Works

If you plan to analyze a musical, artistic, or literature work, such as an opera, a set of paintings, or a novel, adjust this next paradigm to your subject and purpose:

Introduction

• Identify the work
• Give a brief summary in one sentence
• Provide background information that relates to the thesis
• Offer biographical facts about the artist that relate to the specific issues
• Quote and paraphrase authorities to establish the scholarly tradition
• Write a thesis sentence that establishes your particular views of the work

Body

• Provide evaluative analysis divided according to such elements as imagery, theme, character development, structure, symbolism, narration, language, and so forth

Conclusion

• Keep a fundamental focus on the artist of the work, not just the elements of analysis as explained in the body
• Offer a conclusion that explores the contributions of the artist in accord with your thesis sentence

Paradigm for Argument and Persuasion Papers

If you write persuasively or argue from a set position, your paper should conform in general to this paradigm:

Introduction

• In one statement establish the problem or controversial issue that your paper will examine
• Summarize the issues
• Define key terminology
• Make concessions on some points of the argument
• Use quotations and paraphrases to clarify the controversial nature of the subject
• Provide background information to relate the past to the present
• Write a thesis to establish your position

Body

• Develop arguments to defend one side of the subject
• Analyze the issues, both pro and con
• Give evidence from the sources, including quotations as appropriate

Conclusion

• Expand your thesis into a conclusion that makes clear your position, which should be one that grows logically from your analysis and discussion of the issues

Paradigm for Historical Analysis

If you are writing a historical or political science paper that analyzes events and their causes and consequences, your paper should conform in general to the following plan:

Introduction

• Identify the event
• Provide the background leading up to the event
• Offer quotations and paraphrases from experts
• Give the thesis sentence

Body

• Analyze the background leading up to the event
• Trace events from one historic episode to another
• Offer a chronological sequence that explains how one event relates directly to the next
• Cite authorities who have also investigated this event in history

Conclusion

• Reaffirm your thesis
• Discuss the consequences of this event, explaining how it altered the course of history

Paradigm for a Comparative Study

A comparative study requires you to examine two schools of thought, two issues, two works, or the positions taken by two persons. The paper examines the similarities and differences of the two subjects, using one of three arrangements for the body of the paper:

Introduction

• Establish A
• Establish B
• Briefly compare the two
• Introduce the central issues
• Cite source materials on the subjects
• Present your thesis

Body (choose one):

Examine A Examine B Compare and contrast A & B

Compare A & B Contrast A & B Discuss the central issues

Issue 1: Discuss A & B Issue 2: Discuss A & B Issue 3: Discuss A & B

Conclusion

• Discuss the significant issues
• Write a conclusion that ranks one over the other —or—
• Write a conclusion that rates the respective ideas of each side

Using a Formal Outline

Not all papers require a formal outline, nor do all researchers need one. A short research paper can be created from key words, a list of issues, a rough outline, and a first draft. However, a formal outline sometimes becomes important, for it classifies the issues of your study into clear, logical categories with main headings and one or more levels of subheadings.

Using Standard Outline Symbols

List your major categories and subtopics in this form:

An alternative form is the decimal outline, which divides material by numerical divisions:

Writing a Topic Outline

If your purpose is to arrange quickly the topics of your paper without detailing your data, build a topic outline of balanced phrases. The topic outline may use noun phrases:

Or gerund phrases:

Or infinitive phrases:

Writing a Sentence Outline

The sentence outline requires full sentences for each heading and subheading. Its advantages over the topic outline are that it helps to accelerate the writing process, and that it establishes the logical direction of your thinking. For example:

Next: Understanding and Finding "Source" Material